Intercultural Communication:
Improving Reading Skills and Reading Speed
S. Kathleen Kitao
Kenji Kitao Shohakusha Tokyo, Japan Copyright c 2003 by Dr. S. Kathleen Kitao and Dr. Kenji Kitao. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without prior written permission from the authors. Printed in Japan. This textbook is accompanied by a tape and a teachers' guide which includes an English explanation of how to use the textbook and answers for the exercises. For class adoption, we offer a complimentary teachers' guide. Published by Shohakusha 1-6-1 Idabashi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0072 Tel 03-3230-4813 Fax 03-3230-4857 info@shohakusha.com Introduction In the early 21st century, it is probably more likely than at any time in history that ordinary people would encounter situations involving intercultural communication. Tourism brings people in contact with people of other cultures, and it has become more and more common to go overseas on vacation. Many high school and university students go to other countries to study. Even if students do not go overseas themselves, they may encounter foreign students or foreign teachers on their own campuses. With the globalization of the economy, companies send workers overseas, where they must work and live with people of different cultures. In fact, with the spread of the Internet, anyone who wants to communicate with people from other cultures can do so without leaving their own country or even their own home. Along with globalization, people are also more likely to meet people from other cultures or subcultures in their own countries. More and more people are going to other counties to work or study, and people are more likely to encounter people from other subcultures in their country. With this increased communication among people from different cultures, there is an increased potential for misunderstandings. Therefore, it has become useful to know something about intercultural communication. This textbook begins with the usefulness of studying intercultural communication and then goes on to look at the meanings of both communication and culture, in order to better understand intercultural communication. There are also discussions of various aspects and dimensions of culture that can influence how people communicate and how differences in culture can impede communication. Later chapters include a discussion of the application of specific fields of communication -- interpersonal communication and nonverbal communication -- to intercultural communication and the relationship between language and culture. Each chapter begins with Pre-Reading Questions to help students draw on their own knowledge and opinions. True/False Questions, Comprehension Questions, and one additional comprehension exercise help students understand the content of the chapter. Analysis Questions help them understand how some of the individual paragraphs are organized. Discussion Questions help them apply what they have learned and discuss it in terms of their own experiences. We would like to express our appreciation to Robert Pfeil, Juliet W. Carpenter, and Nina Handjeva-Weller of all of Doshisha Women's College and for reading and making valuable comments on the manuscript of this book. S. Kathleen Kitao Kenji Kitao March 2002 Table of Contents 1. Why Study Intercultural Communication? 2. What is Communication? 3. What is Culture? 4. Background Knowledge as a Barrier to Intercultural Communication 5. Aspects of Culture -- Interaction, Association, Subsistence and Bisexuality 6. Aspects of Culture -- Territoriality, Temporality, Learning, Play, Defense, and Exploitation 7. Dimensions of Culture 8. Nonverbal Communication and Intercultural Communication -- Kinesics, Paralanguage, Proxemics, and Haptics 9. Nonverbal Communication and Intercultural Communication -- Theoretical Approaches 10. Interpersonal Communication and Intercultural Communication -- Initial Interactions 11. Interpersonal Communication and Intercultural Communication -- Maintaining a Relationship 12. Language and Communication Style
Chapter 12 Pre-Reading Questions If you want to complain to someone in Japanese, do you complain directly, that is, do you come out and say what you mean? Or do you make hints about your complaint? Give an example of how you might complain in Japanese. What are the words for "you" in Japanese? How are they different? Introduction [1] Formal language is a uniquely human characteristic. It is, in part, the capacity for language that gives humans the power that they have. Complex thoughts can be communicated across the world or from generation to generation. The thoughts can be widely distributed through printing. [2] Language and culture are closely related. In many ways, the culture is reflected in the language. In this chapter, we will look at this relationship. Language and Culture [3] The traditional view of language is that it is a neutral medium that is used to express thoughts and ideas. However, in the 1920s, anthropologist and linguist Edward Sapir, and later his student, Benjamin Whorf, developed a theory that became known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. According to the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, language does not only express thoughts and ideas, it shapes them. Whorf wrote in 1940: "cthe background linguistic system c of each language is not merely a reproducing instrument for voicing ideas but rather is itself the shaper of ideasc. We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native language." [4] Our language directs our attention to different aspects of the world around us, social relationships, etc. While modern linguists believe that the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis may state the case too strongly, there are many examples of ways that language and culture interact. [5] One famous example can be seen in an Eskimo language. In that language, there are twenty different words for snow. Eskimos can make many different distinctions among types of snow, something that is not possible in English. And so Eskimos are able to notice and talk about a wide variety of types of snow, while English speakers do not. [6] In Japanese, when you are talking about a sibling, you must specify whether the sibling is older or younger; in English, it is possible to refer to a "brother" or "sister" without specifying whether he/she is younger or older. This emphasizes and reinforces the hierarchical nature of Japanese families. Similarly, in English, the word "you" is used to address one person or several people, people of higher status or lower status. In many European languages, there are two forms of "you," one for familiar people, one for distant or higher status people. (Tu and vous in French; du and Sie in German, etc.) In Japanese, the form of "you" that is used depends on your relationship with the other person, whether they are male or female, whether you are male or female, etc. These and many other differences both reflect and form attitudes in the culture. Communication Styles [6] In addition to different languages, cultures differ in their communication styles. William Gudykunst and Stella Tong-Toomey identified the following three types of communication styles. [7] Direct/Indirect. Cultures differ in the degree to which speakers directly reveal their meanings and intentions. In cultures that are direct, speakers are clear about their meaning; in cultures that are indirect, speakers hint at their real meaning, and listeners are expected to make inferences from the information given. In general, individualistic, low context cultures (for example, the US, England, Australia, Germany, and Israel) tend to be more direct, while collectivist, high context cultures (for example, many Asian cultures) tend to be more indirect. [8] Elaborate/Exacting/Succinct. Another dimension of communication style is the extent to which speakers have a tendency to use a lot of words. In a culture that uses the elaborate style (for example, many Arab and Middle Eastern cultures and among African Americans), the emphasis is on flashy and embellished language. This also includes the use of many metaphors, similes, and other figurative language. In a culture where an exacting style is used (such as among many white Americans), it is expected that no more and no less than is necessary will be said. In a culture that uses the succinct style (such as Japan and some other Asian countries, as well as in some Native American cultures), speakers are very concise. They may say less than necessary, and even be silent, and expect the hearer to make inferences. [9] Instrumental/Affective. Another distinction is between instrumental styles and affective styles. In cultures where an instrumental style is used, communication is goal-oriented, and communication is seen as a tool to accomplish tasks, whether making friends, communicating needs and wants, or defeating opponents. An affective style of communication is one in which the emphasis is placed on the process of communication rather than on the outcome. For example, in some Arab cultures, it is important to discuss social topics before getting down to business. That is an example of an affective style. After a short time, many Americans may feel that they should start talking business, and that talking about social topics is a waste of time. That is an instrumental style. Conclusion [10] Language influences communication in a variety of ways. The values and beliefs that are common in a culture are reflected, to some extent, in the language. In addition, cultures differ in how direct, elaborate, and instrumental styles of communication tend to be. (844 words) Vocabulary 1. uniquely: found only in one (group, nationality, etc.) 2. capacity: ability to do something 3. neutral: not supporting either side (of a disagreement, issue, etc.) 4. anthropologist: person who studies humans and their cultures 5. linguist: person who studies languages and their structure 6. reproducing: copying 7. instrument: tool that helps someone do something 8. voicing: speaking; putting into words 9. sibling: brother or sister 10. specify: to say or communicate exactly what one means 11. reinforce: makes (something) stronger 12. reveal: tell 13. intention: purpose 14. hint: make reference to something in an indirect way 15. inferences: educated guesses based on some information 16. elaborate: giving more detail; explaining in detail 17. succinct: brief and clear 18. extent: amount; degree 19. tendency: being likely to behave in a certain way 20. flashy: showy 21. embellished: with many details added 22. metaphor: figure of speech that suggests similarity between two things that appear different (for example, "Life is a journey") 23. concise: said in few words with much meaning 24. defeating: winning a victory over 25. opponents: people who take the opposite side in a fight 26. outcome: effect; result True/False Questions T F ? 1. According to the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, language shapes ideas. T F ? 2. Using words that specify whether a sibling is older or younger emphasizes and reinforces hierarchical differences. T F ? 3. Germany and Israel are examples of indirect cultures. T F ? 4. Many white Americans use an exacting style of communication. T F ? 5. Japanese culture uses an elaborate style of communication. T F ? 6. An instrumental style of communication puts emphasis on the goals, while an affective style puts emphasis on the process. Comprehension Questions 1. What does formal language allow humans to do? 2. According to Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey, in what aspects do communication styles differ? 3. How do speakers communicate their feelings in cultures that use an indirect style of communication? 4. What is language like in the elaborate style? Exacting style? Succinct style? Matching Exercise Match the communication style on the left with the example or group on the right. ___ 1. direct a. many Arab and Middle Eastern cultures ___ 2. indirect b. many Asian cultures ___ 3. elaborate c. communication is a tool to accomplish tasks ___ 4. exacting d. gives only necessary information ___ 5. succinct e. places more emphasis on process than outcome ___ 6. instrumental f. tend to be individualistic and high context ___ 7. affective g. speakers may even be silent Analysis Questions 1. In Paragraph 5, what is the twenty words for snow in an Eskimo language an example of? 2. What sentence states the main idea of Paragraph 7? 3. In Paragraph 8, what three categories are cultures divided into? 4. What sentence states the main idea of Paragraph 10? Discussion Questions Think about Japanese communication styles. Do you think the Japanese communication style tends to be more: 1. direct or indirect 2. elaborate, exacting, or succinct 3. instrumental or affective What examples can you give of each of these styles of communication? Catalog (in Japanese)Language and Communication Style