Communicating Across the Pacific
Kenji Kitao
S. Kathleen Kitao Eichosha Tokyo, Japan TABLE OF CONTENTS The Study of Intercultural Communication in the United States: A Brief History to the Early 1980's . . . . . . 1 Barriers to Intercultural Communication Between Americans and Japanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Effects of Social Environment on Japanese and American Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 The Group in Japan and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Differences in the Kinesic Codes of Americans and Japanese . . 73 Differences in Color Associations of Americans and Japanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Comprehension Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 DIFFERENCES IN COLOR ASSOCIATIONS OF AMERICANS AND JAPANESE Kenji Kitao S. Kathleen Kitao Abstract In communicating with someone of a different culture, linguistic competence in the target language is not enough. It is also necessary to understand the associations that speakers of the target language share. Associations help form a bridge between language and meaning. If communicators have different associations, they may interpret the same sentence differently. For communicating in a foreign language, the most important type of association is indicative association, which is related to the literature, customs, history, etc., of a people. When Japanese people communicate with Americans in English, this is the type of association that often causes them problems, since they do not know much about the indicative associations of Americans. Associations and conventions related to color are one area of indicitive association that may cause problems for Japanese people communicating in English. In this paper, we discuss the associations that Japanese and Americans have for common colors and some of the differences between these associations. RUNNING HEAD: Differences in Color Association Introduction Japanese people often have difficulty communicating with Americans in English. Sometimes these problems are related to linguistic problems, but communication barriers are also often related to inadequate knowledge of the thought patterns of Americans and the associations that Americans share (Kitao, 1979). Languages can be compared on different levels. A linguistic comparison, while it is useful for some purposes, will not reveal all the significant differences, because language is also strongly related to the speakers' cultural background (Finocchiaro, 1974). A Japanese trying to communicate with Americans must know something of the associations that Americans share. Therefore, communicating with Americans requires more than just learning the language itself; it also involves understanding its speakers and their associations. Associations People use language to communicate their thoughts. A speaker converts a concept into verbal and non-verbal signs. The hearer converts the signs into a concept. If the concept of the hearer and the speaker are the same or similar, the communication has been successful. If they are different, the communication has not been successful. The speaker does not necessarily use all the signs that are required to communicate the concept. Associations may be used to form a bridge between the signs and the concept. In this way, associations are important in converting concepts into signs and signs into concepts. In areas where the speaker's and hearer's associations differ, misunderstandings will result if they are not aware of these differences. One type of association is indicative association, which is strongly related to history, literature, legend, custom, etc. It is this type of association that causes Japanese people particular difficulties in communicating with Americans in English, since they are often not familiar with these aspects of American culture. For example, a Japanese who heard an American speaker say, "I feel blue," would not understand the utterance unless he/she realized that Americans associate the color blue with depression and so the sentence means, "I feel depressed." Thus, it is significant to study areas that affect association. This paper explores one aspect of association--that of color-related associations. In this paper, we will discuss the objects and associations that Japanese and Americans relate to various common colors. Awareness of Color Colors are in a continuous belt between purple and red. That belt is cut arbitrarily into many colors. Approximately 7000 colors have been distinguished. Some cultures recognize more colors than others. For example, not all cultures recognize seven colors in the rainbow. Therefore, it is interesting to know which colors a particular group of people are most aware of. In a study of the Hurray Islands, the following terms were chosen out of a larger list of more than thirty elicited test materials: white, black (and blue), red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and gray. Eleven colors were chosen in the study of Zuni: white, black, red, green, yellow, blue, brown, purple, pink, orange, and gray. Compared to Japanese, English has more color terms. English also has more words for shades of colors. In Japanese, expressions like "the color of water" (light blue) or the "color of a mouse" (gray) are used as color terms. These differences indicate that Americans seem to have more awareness of color than Japanese people do. Objects Associated with Colors In preparation for a paper in an ethnolinguistics class, Japanese and American students at a large Midwestern university were surveyed about objects associated with nine common colors: blue, red, yellow, green, orange, white, black, purple, and brown. Respondents were asked to list up to two objects associated with each color. The survey showed differences and similarities between the objects that Americans and Japanese people associate with objects and some of the cultural conventions related to colors. Blue has strong associations with the sky and the ocean for both Americans and Japanese. Some Americans listed jeans, and this shows the popularity of jeans among American students and demonstrates strong association of colors with things used in daily life. Red is associated with sunsets and blood by both Americans and Japanese. It is associated with the communist flag and lips for Americans and with fire for Japanese. (Americans think of fire as being orange or yellow, but it is definitely red for Japanese.) Yellow has an association with eggs for both Americans and Japanese. It is linked with the sun for Americans but not for Japanese, who associate red with the sun. In American culture, yellow has a wider range of object associations. Some Americans paired yellow with road signs and school buses. Such associations are alien to the Japanese experience. Green is associated with grass, trees, and leaves for both Americans and Japanese. However, Americans also link it with both eyes and money. Since almost all Japanese people have black or brown eyes, Japanese people do not think of green in association with eyes, and since Japanese money is not green, Japanese people do not associate money with the color green at all. Japanese listed mountains as green but Americans did not. Many of the American respondents were from midwestern states, where there are no mountains. In addition, many of the mountains in the western part of the United States are above the tree line and therefore are not green. St. Patrick's Day also has an association with green for Americans. Japanese who are unfamiliar with this occasion do not associate it with green. The color orange has its strongest association with oranges for Americans and Japanese. Americans have some association of orange with pumpkins. The distinction between yellow and orange is not clear for either Americans or Japanese. Caution lights can be described as orange or yellow. School buses can be orange or yellow for Americans. Since orange is between yellow and red on the color scale, fire and the sun are sometimes described as orange, as well as red or yellow by Americans and Japanese. White has a strong association with snow for both groups. Americans sometimes associate it with linens. The moon is white for Americans but yellow for Japanese. Many Americans wrote "paper." Some Americans associate the color with white people and thus listed "man" and "skin." Black has a strong association with night for both Americans and Japanese. Americans have a strong association of black with black people and so they wrote "Negro," "man" and "skin." Purple has a strong association with royalty for the American respondents, and they also imagine cloth, velvet, robes, etc. However, this was not a strongly associated color for the Japanese respondents, and they did not list any characteristic associations for purple. Brown has an association with earth and trees for both Americans and Japanese. Brown shoes seem popular in the United States and Japan, because many people mentioned them. The Americans and Japanese showed much similarity in recognizing colors. Usually, they agreed on the colors of objects. Associations between colors and objects are based on culture and experience. For example, distinctions among races is very important, particularly between white and black, in the United States. Americans have a very strong association of color with races and they are also more sensitive than the Japanese to the colors of hair, eyes, and skin, since these have more variety in the United States than in Japan. Color and Language Usage of color terminology is not necessarily based on observation. Use of color is often dependent on cultural convention, custom, or convenience. For example, all chalkboards were originally black and therefore were called blackboards. Even though many chalkboards are now green, they are still called blackboards. Also, Japanese people often use blue and green interchangeably. A green traffic light is described as being not green but blue. In Japanese, the term for aosogen [blue field] is used to describe a green field. Black tea is not black and green tea is not necessarily green. Orientals are traditionally described as being yellow, American Indians as red, Negroes as black, and Caucasians as white, but in actuality, this is not necessarily so. Most skin colors are shades of brown. Colors are used according to the conventions of the culture. Colors are sometimes used to describe contrasts, but these are also based on convention rather than observation. Typical contrasts are white and red and white and black. White wine is distinguished from red wine, but it is not white but clear. Red rice is pink rather than red. White pepper and black pepper are only white or black compared to one another. White metal is not white but only a contrast to iron (black). Human skin is not actually black or white but rather varying shades of brown. Certain events are associated with colors. St. Patrick's Day is associated with green, Christmas with red and green, Easter with purple and yellow, the Fourth of July with red, white and blue, and Halloween with black and orange. The colors red and white are used at a Japanese celebration and yellow and white at Japanese funerals. Color Connotations The following are some common colors and their connotations in English, with examples of related expressions, a comparison to their connotations in Japanese and different colors related to the same connotations for Japanese people. The examples come from American informants, dictionaries, and a book on comparative culture. Americans use the following colors to describe races of people: Negroes are black; Caucasians are white; Orientals are yellow; American Indians are red; and people from Latin America and their descendants are brown. In Japanese, the same colors are used in association with the first two races. However, American Indians are - described as being doshoku [the color of copper]. (It should be noted that, while the terms "black" and "white" are still used to denote races in English, "red," "yellow," and "brown" have come to be considered derogatory and are not often used any more.) Usually, Americans are more specific with colors and use more color terms than Japanese. For example, kuro [black] is used for black, brown or dark. Therefore, kuroikao [black face] can be used to describe a very dirty face, the face of a black person, or a suntanned face. In English, a suntanned face is described as brown, never black. Blue Blue in English has connotations of depression, obscenity, the best, nobility, loyalty, strictness, nothingness, and lack of oxygen. Depression. blue Monday blue devils (a depressed feeling) I feel blue. Today is just a blue day. I have the blues. I am blue. He is in a blue mood today. He always sings the blues. (talks pessimistically) The blues, a type of jazz music, is also related to this association of blue. This type of music is characterized by its melancholy sound, caused by playing certain notes, called blue notes, slightly flat. In Japanese, no particular color is associated with depression. Obscenity. a blue movie blue stories In Japanese, pink is the color that has the connotation of obscenity. a pink film a pink mood The best. In the United States, blue, red and white indicate first, second, and third prizes respectively. He got a blue ribbon. blue chips (poker chips of high value) They are blue chip stocks. (expensive, desirable stocks) The governor appointed a blue ribbon panel. (a special panel of experts) No particular colors are associated with prizes in Japan. Nobility. She has blue blood in her veins. She is a blue blood/blue-blooded. Loyalty. She is true blue. Nothingness. The message came from out of the blue. (as from nowhere) Blue can also be used in Japanese to indicate nothingness. seiten no hekireki [thunder from a blue sky (a surprise out of nowhere)] Lack of oxygen. She held her breath till she turned blue. A blue baby was born. I screamed until I was blue in the face. In Japanese, blue is used to indicate pallidness, due either to illness or to shock, fear, etc. Kare wa aoku natta. [He became blue (He became ill or blanched from shock).] aojiroi [pale (due to ill health)] aozameru [turn pale (due to either ill health or shock, fear, etc.)] Other expressions. blue-collar workers (industrial workers) blue jacket (American soldier in the Revolutionary War) blue stocking (a learned, bookish or pedantic woman; from the unconventional blue worsted stockings worn by the leading figure at literary meetings in 18th century London) blue plate special (an inexpensive restaurant meal served at a fixed price on a large plate, originally blue) She talked a blue streak. (She talked fast, without pauses.) Red The connotations of red in English are communism, passion, anger, and shame or embarrassment. Communism. These people are Reds. (These people are communists.) Passion. She is red hot. (She is excited.) Anger. He burned red. She went red with anger. He saw red. Shame or embarrassment. She had a red face. There are going to be a lot of red faces around here when the news of that big mistake gets out. He was red as a beet. Other expressions. red-light district (area of prostitution) redneck (a poor white in the South or a very conservative person) red letter day (a special day) red meat (meat that is red before cooking; beef or mutton) I am in the red. (I am in debt.) The project went into the red/into red ink. They'll roll out the red carpet to welcome the prince. (give someone a good reception) I cannot go there, because my father gave me the red light. (forbade me to go) I had to wait for two hours because of all the red tape. (bureaucracy) The connotations of red in Japanese are shame, anger, or embarrassment, clear or complete, communism, and celebration. Shame, anger, or embarrassment. akai kao [red face (anger, shame, embarrassment)] Kare wa akaku natta. [He turned red (with anger, shame, or embarrassment).] Kare wa makkani natte okotta. [He turned red with anger.] Communism. Kare wa aka da. [He is a Red (a communist).] Clear or complete. akauso [red (bare-faced) lie] akanotanin [red (complete) stranger] akahadaka [completely nude] sekihin [very poor] In English, it is black that has the connotation of completeness. a black villain. a black lie Celebration. seki han [red rice, which Japanese people eat to celebrate certain things] Yellow The connotation of yellow in English is cowardice. Cowardice. You are yellow. You are yellow-bellied. You have a yellow streak down your back. Other expressions. yellow pages (part of a telephone book) yellow metal (gold) Yellow does not have any particular connotations in Japanese. Green The connotations of green in English are envy; inexperience; growth; sickness, especially seasickness; and money. Envy. He turned green with envy when he saw Tom's new car. He is green. the green-eyed monster (jealousy) Inexperience or youthfulness. He is as green as grass. He is a greenhorn at photography. green recruits Growth. The Middle East is undergoing a green revolution. He has a green thumb when it comes to roses. (He is good at growing roses.) Sickness. She turned green when the boat started rocking. He turned green when he saw the terrible sight. Money. Give me some green. (Give me some money.) Give me some greenbacks. (dollars) She has a lot of green stuff. Other expressions. You've got a green light. (You have the go-ahead.) greenhouse In Japanese, green is associated with plants. ryokka [tree planting] ryokuchi [green tract of land] ryokuin [the shade of trees] ryokuju [green-leaved trees] ryokuso [green grass] In Japanese, blue (ao) and green are often used interchangeably, so ao is used for green to mean plants. aoba [green leaves] aona [greens] aoendo [green peas] aokusa [green grass] aomame [green beans] aomono [green things (vegetables)] aotagai [unripened fruit] Ao also has the connotation of inexperience and youth. aonisai [green youth; greenhorn] aozamurai [young soldiers; inexperienced soldiers] White The connotations of white are fear, innocence, virtue, anger, and virginity. Fear. She turned white as a ghost when she saw her brother, who she had thought was dead. He went white as a sheet when he read the telegram. He was white with terror. Her lips were white with fear. Innocence or goodness. white magic white lie Virtue. The hero rode on a white horse. the good guys in the white hats Anger. He turned white with anger when he saw his girlfriend with a handsome guy. He is white hot. Virginity. She did not wear a white wedding dress, because it was her second marriage. Other expressions. white trash (poor white people in the South) white supremacy (the belief that white people are superior and that they are intended to govern non-white people) white metal (any of various light-colored alloys) white plague (tuberculosis) white hot steel (steel that is so hot [beyond red hot] that it glows white) A soldier saw an angel in white (nurse) coming to his rescue. He whitewashed his girlfriend. (minimized her faults) There are whitecaps on the sea today. (waves with foam on top) His great bargain turned out to be a white elephant. (something from which little profit or use is derived) He showed the white tail when danger came. (behaved in a cowardly way) white collar workers (office workers) white goods (linens) white sale (sale of white goods) white lightning (homemade whiskey) white potato The connotations of white in Japanese are innocence, cleanliness, and coldness. Innocence. Kare wa shiro da. [He is innocent.] Cleanliness. masshirona tablecloth [pure white tablecloth--implies that the whole room is clean] Coldness. Shiroi me de miru [look coldly on (something)] Shirakeru [become chilled; become less cheerful] Black The connotations of black are evil, anger, and mourning, confirmed or absolute, depressing or gloomy, and negative. Evil. They perform black magic. (magic with an evil purpose) He is using black magic on me. Pirates are black-hearted. (wicked) She saw the betrayal as a black deed. He is the black sheep of our family. (a person regarded as not so respectable or successful as the rest of his family or group) Anger. He gave me a black look. His face was as black as thunder. Mourning. The mourners were dressed in black. Confirmed or absolute. He told a black lie. a black villain Depressing or gloomy. Things look black. black humor Negative. He is on the blacklist. (a list [literal or figurative] of persons who have been censured) Because he cheated on the test, he got a black mark. (a mark indicating something unfavorable on one's record) He was blackballed from joining a fraternity. (a negative vote) Other expressions. I saw a black cat this morning. (a symbol of coming bad luck) I got into the black. (out of debt) black metal (iron) He bought that watch on the black market. (a place or system for buying goods in violation of price controls or other restrictions) blacksmith little black book (address book that a man has with women's [i.e., girlfriends'] names) black plague (bubonic plague) The connotations of black (kuro) in Japanese are evil and formality. Evil. Kare wa kuro da. [He is guilty.] Kare wa haraguroi. [He is black-hearted.] Kare wa kuromaku datta. [He was the head of a criminal organization.] kuroikiri [black fog (corrupt atmosphere)] Formality. - Kare wa kuroi sutsu o kite itta. [He went wearing a black suit. (This indicates formality.)] Japanese people wear black on formal occasions, including both funerals and weddings. Purple The connotations of purple are royalty, anger, passion, and elaborateness. Anger. He is purple with rage. She is in a purple rage over the argument. Royalty. He was born to the purple. He was cradled in the purple. Passion. She is in a purple passion. (very excited) Elaborateness. purple prose His writing is purple. The only connotation of purple (murasaki) in Japanese is nobility. murasaki no kumo [imperial palace] murasaki no miya [imperial palace] Conclusion In communicating with someone of a different culture, linguistic competence in the target language is not enough. It is also necessary to understand the associations that speakers of the target language share. Associations help form a bridge between language and meaning. If people have different associations, they may interpret the same sentence differently. For communicating in a foreign language, the most important type of association is indicative association, which is related to the literature, customs, history, and so on, of a people. When Japanese people communicate with Americans in English, this is the type of association that often causes them problems, since they do not know much about the indicative associations of Americans. Associations related to color are one large, important area of associations that Japanese people must have an understanding of in order to communicate successfully with Americans. Americans seem to have a greater awareness of color than Japanese people do. Americans have more terms for color, more words for different shades, and so on. Japanese people may need to learn to distinguish between two colors in English that have the same name in Japanese. Americans also seem to have more associations related to colors than Japanese do. Americans and Japanese do not necessarily use the same colors for the same objects. For example, Americans have a wider range of yellow and Japanese have a wider range of red, so the sun and fire are red in Japanese and yellow in English. Americans and Japanese share some of the same color associations, but there are many differences. Japanese people are often not familiar with color associations based on American culture and daily life. Since the use of color terminology is often based on cultural convention rather than descriptions of reality, Japanese people who communicate with Americans in English have to learn the American way to use colors. Some American events and holidays are associated with colors. These are often unfamiliar to Japanese people. The following are the connotations of colors discussed in this paper. blue: depression, obscenity, the best, nobility, loyalty, strictness, and lack of oxygen red: passion yellow: cowardice green: envy, inexperience, newness, growth, sickness, and money white: fear, anger, virtue, and virginity black: anger, mourning, confirmed or absolute, depressing or gloomy, and negative purple: anger, passion, and elaborateness It is helpful for Japanese people who communicate with Americans to know the connotations of colors. As for the expressions using colors in the previous section, they are culturally oriented, so they have to be learned item by item. Color associations have much significance in American culture, and different patterns of color associations and expressions can be found between Americans and Japanese. It is a great help to Japanese who have contact with Americans if those differences of patterns of cultures are clarified. Comprehension Questions 1. What must Japanese people communicating with Americans know about? 2. How does communication work? In what situation is it successful? Unsuccessful? 3. How can a speaker communicate a concept without using all the necessary signs? 4. Why does the sentence "I feel blue" mean "I feel depressed?" 5. What objects do both Americans and Japanese associate blue with? 6. What color do Americans associate with the sun? What color do Japanese associate with it? 7. Why don't Japanese associate green with eyes or money? Why don't Americans associate it with mountains? 8. What color is related to royalty for Americans but has no special associations for Japanese? 9. What is the use of color based on? What is an example of this? 10. How is the description of the skin color of American Indians different for Americans and Japanese? 11. What are the connotations that the color blue has in English? 12. Give an example of how red might be used with the connotation of embarrassment. 13. What connotations does red have in Japanese that it does not have in English? 14. What connotations does yellow have for Americans? for Japanese? 15. What is a greenhorn? the green-eyed monster? a green thumb? greenbacks? 16. What does it mean if a person is white as a sheet? riding a white horse? 17. For Americans, what does a black look indicate? dressing in black? a black cat? a black mark? 18. What connotation does black have in Japanese that it does not have in English? 19. What does "turning purple" indicate? 20. What connotation does purple have in Japanese? Catalog (in English)